sulla primary sources

Archelaus tried to break out but were unsuccessful; Sulla then annihilated the Pontic army and captured its camp. He then revived the office of dictator, which had been inactive since the Second Punic War, over a century before. [124] The purge did little to strengthen resolve and when Sulla arrived at Rome, the city opened its gates and his opponents fled. "[132] The majority of the proscribed had not been enemies of Sulla, but instead were killed for their property, which was confiscated and auctioned off. [126] Sulla's specific movements are very vaguely described in Appian, but he was successful in preventing the Italians from relieving Praeneste or joining with Carbo. The assembly of the people subsequently ratified the decision, with no limit set on his time in office. Keep in mind as you use this website, the Web is always changing and evolving. Here are the names and relevant periods for some of the main ancient Latin and Greek sources for Roman history. This mixture was later referred to by Machiavelli in his description of the ideal characteristics of a ruler. The type of source you look for will depend on the stage you are at in the writing process. After the battle, Marius withdrew to Praeneste and was there besieged. Encyclopedias. His troops prepared the ground by starting to dig a series of three trenches, which successfully contained Pontic cavalry. [citation needed]. If Sulla hesitated it can only have been because he was not sure how his army would react. Websites. Marius, offering his services to Cinna, helped levy troops. A gifted and innovative general, he achieved numerous successes in wars against foreign and domestic opponents. Primary source is a term used in a number of disciplines to describe source material that is closest to the person, information, period, or idea being studied. 9, The Last Age of the Roman Republic, 146-43 BC. Sulla hurried in full force towards Rome and there fought the Battle of the Colline Gate on the afternoon of 1 November 82BC. For example: scholarly or popular books and articles, reference books, biographies, or textbooks. You can limit HOLLIS searches to your time period, but sources may be published later, such as a person's diary published posthumously. Sarah Cooper teaches 8th grade U.S. history and is assistant head for academic life at Flintridge Preparatory School in La Canada, Calif. Sarah is the . Possibly to protect himself from future political retribution, Sulla had the sons and grandsons of the proscribed banned from running for political office, a restriction not removed for over 30 years. To make primary texts readily available for classroom use, they selected important . [137][15] In a manner that the historian Suetonius thought arrogant, Julius Caesar later mocked Sulla for resigning the dictatorship. Sulla then increased the number of magistrates elected in any given year, and required that all newly elected quaestores gain automatic membership in the Senate. They are different from secondary sources, accounts that retell, analyze, or interpret events, usually at a distance of time or place." Library of Congress Teacher's Page. He had one child from this union, before his first wife's death. Ancient accounts of Sulla's death indicate that he died from liver failure or a ruptured gastric ulcer (symptomized by a sudden hemorrhage from his mouth, followed by a fever from which he never recovered), possibly caused by chronic alcohol abuse. The Internet Modern History Sourcebook is one of series of history primary sourcebooks. sulla primary sources. . Research Process and Acumen: Experience with primary sources can support future academic success. [22] His first wife was called either Ilia or Julia. Primary sources can include: Texts of laws and other original documents. [53] Sulla was regarded to have done well in the east: he had restored Ariobarzanes to the throne, been hailed imperator by his men, and was the first Roman to treat successfully with the Parthians. But it was from 59, Nero's fifth year as emperor that things started to go seriously . From 133BC and the start of Tiberius Gracchus' land reforms, Italian communities were displaced from de jure Roman public lands over which no title had been enforced for generations. Also, Faustus Cornelius Sulla, Nero's cousin, was exiled as a potential rival in 58. Primary sources are often in manuscript collections and archival records. Updated on June 22, 2022 Students. At the same time, Mithridates attempted to force a land battle in northern Greece, and dispatched a large army across the Hellespont. Sulla's First Civil War (88-87 BC) was triggered by an attempt to strip him of the command against Mithridates and saw Sulla become the first Roman to lead an army against the city for four hundred years. [50][51], In 94BC, Sulla repulsed the forces of Tigranes the Great of Armenia from Cappadocia. Although he was able to regain the command, his political setup in Rome collapsed almost as soon as he left Italy, and the war would . [100], In the summer of 86BC, two major battles were fought in Boeotia. The cultivated grapevine (Vitis vinifera ssp. He returned victorious from the east in 82 BC, marched a second time on Rome, and crushed the populares and their Italian allies at the Battle of the Colline Gate. This led him to a secret deal with Marius, who had for years been coveting another military command, in which Marius would support Sulpicius' Italian legislation in exchange for a law transferring Sulla's command to Marius. [68] Shortly after Sulla's election, probably in the last weeks of the year, Sulla married his daughter to one of his colleague Pompeius Rufus' sons. Books. Sulla, himself a patrician, thus ineligible for election to the office of Plebeian Tribune, thoroughly disliked the office. The source types commonly used in academic writing include: Academic journals. He hinted to them that Marius would find other men to fight Mithridates, forcing them to give up opportunities to plunder the East, claims which were "surely false". [136] Sulla's reforms both looked to the past (often repassing former laws) and regulated for the future, particularly in his redefinition of maiestas (treason) laws and in his reform of the Senate. When he was still a proconsul in 82, he planned and executed the proscriptions against his enemies for revenge, especially from the Marian camp, and against rich Romans because he needed money to pay his veterans . [94] While Rome was preparing to move against Pontus, Mithridates arranged the massacre of some eighty thousand Roman and Italian expatriates and their families, confiscating any available properties. He defeated Norbanus at the Battle of Mount Tifata, forcing the consul to withdraw. Normally, candidates had to have first served for ten years in the military, but by Sulla's time, this had been superseded by an age requirement. Mithridates was to give Asia and Paphlagonia back to Rome. Sulla was a man to whom, up to victory, sufficient praise can hardly be given, and for whom, after victory, no criticism can be adequate. Yes, if the painting originated at the time it depicts, then it is a primary source. In the sciences and social sciences, primary sources or 'primary research' are original research experiments, studies, or . Learning in Black and White. The populares nonetheless seized power once he left with his army to Asia. senators and equites) executed, although as many as 9,000 people were estimated to have been killed. Sulla then left for Capua before joining an army near Nola in southern Italy.[74]. Primary sources are first-hand accounts of events. [100] In need of resources, Sulla sacked the temples of Epidaurus, Delphi, and Olympia; after a battle with the Pontic general Archelaus outside Piraeus, Sulla's forces forced the Pontic garrison to withdraw by sea. Sulla had the distinction of holding the office of consul twice, as well as reviving the dictatorship. A primary source (also called original . [84] Cinna, even before the election, said he would prosecute Sulla at the conclusion of the latter's consular term. Rome at the End of the Punic Wars [History, Book 6] [At this Site] Acts of the Divine Augustus (Res Gestae Divi Augusti) [At MIT] The Life of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (40-93 CE), [At UNRV History] Life of Cnaeus Julius Agricola (40-93 CE), c.98 CE trans. The constitutional reforms of Sulla were a series of laws enacted by the Roman dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla between 82 and 80 BC, reforming the Constitution of the Roman Republic in a revolutionary way.. [59], In the first year of fighting, Roman strategy was largely one of containment, attempting to stop the revolting allies from spreading their rebellion into Roman-controlled territory. This unusual appointment (used hitherto only in times of extreme danger to the city, such as during the Second Punic War, and then only for 6-month periods) represented an exception to Rome's policy of not giving total power to a single individual. Sulla 5 (L. Cornelius Sulla Felix) - Roman dictator, 82-79 B.C. Sulla's descendants continued to be prominent in Roman politics into the imperial period. Social War, also called Italic War, or Marsic War, (90-89 bc), rebellion waged by ancient Rome's Italian allies (socii) who, denied the Roman franchise, fought for independence. You may copy and distribute the translations and commentaries in this resource, or parts of such translations and commentaries, in any medium . [54] Various proposals to give the allies Roman citizenship over the decades had failed for various reasons, just as the allies also "became progressively more aware of the need to cease to be subjects and to share in the exercise of imperial power" by acquiring that citizenship. [35], In 104BC, the Cimbri and the Teutones, two Germanic tribes who had bested the Roman legions on several occasions, seemed to again be heading for Italy. Years later, in 91BC, Bocchus paid for the erection of gilded equestrian statue depicting Sulla's capture of Jugurtha. Sulla almost certainly received a normal education for his class, grounded in ancient Greek and Latin classics. [101], Sulla decamped his army from Attica toward central Greece. Scipio's men quickly abandoned him for Sulla; finding him almost alone in his camp, Sulla tried again to persuade Scipio to defect. [40] His prospects for advancement under Marius stalled, however, Sulla started to complain "most unfairly" that Marius was withholding opportunities from him. His execution in AD 62 on the orders of emperor Nero made him the last of the Cornelii Sullae. Plutarch, writing much . In . "[157] This duality, or inconsistency, made him very unpredictable and "at the slightest pretext, he might have a man crucified, but, on another occasion, would make light of the most appalling crimes; or he might happily forgive the most unpardonable offenses, and then punish trivial, insignificant misdemeanors with death and confiscation of property. Sulla's body was brought into the city on a golden bier, escorted by his veteran soldiers, and funeral orations were delivered by several eminent senators, with the main oration possibly delivered by Lucius Marcius Philippus or Hortensius. His enemy, Lucius Cornelius Cinna, was elected consul for 87BC in place of his candidate;[83] his nephew was rejected as plebeian tribune while Marius' nephew was successful. Ozzy Osbourne Grandchildren, Dalton Smith Pogo Stick, Best Basketball Camps In Ontario, Rinnai R53i Parts Diagram, Mennonite Vs Amish Vs Mormon, Introduction. Sulla played an important role in the long political struggle between the optimates and populares factions at Rome. [40] But Catulus' army was defeated in the eastern Alps and withdrew from Venetia and thence to the southern side of the river Po. At the start of his second consulship in 80BC with Metellus Pius, Sulla resigned his dictatorship. To further solidify the prestige and authority of the Senate, Sulla transferred the control of the courts from the equites, who had held control since the Gracchi reforms, to the senators. [139][140], Sulla's goal now was to write his memoirs, which he finished in 78 BC, just before his death. [21] Regardless, by the standards of the Roman political class, Sulla was a very poor man. Tweet. [81.4] It note also contains an account of Thracian . The Senate immediately sent an embassy demanding an explanation for his seeming march on the fatherland, to which Sulla responded boldly, saying that he was freeing it from tyrants. [145], His public funeral in Rome (in the Forum, in the presence of the whole city) was on a scale unmatched until that of Augustus in AD 14. [18] Lacking ready money, Sulla spent his youth among Romes comedians, actors, lute players, and dancers. Even though the prosecutor declined to show up on the day of the trial, leading to Sulla's victory by default, Sulla's ambitions were frustrated. A research article or study proving this would be a primary source. [96] Rome unsuccessfully defended Delos from an joint invasion by Athens and Pontus. [citation needed], The second law concerned the sponsio, which was the sum in dispute in cases of debt, and usually had to be lodged with the praetor before the case was heard. [56] When the pro-Italian plebeian tribune Marcus Livius Drusus was assassinated in 91BC while trying again to pass a bill extending Roman citizenship, the Italians revolted. If the latter, he may have married into the Julii Caesares. The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. Sulla rose to prominence during the war against the Numidian king Jugurtha, whom he captured as a result of Jugurtha's betrayal by the king's allies, although his superior Gaius Marius took credit for ending the war. Click the title for location and availability information. [38] The next year, Sulla was elected military tribune and served under Marius,[39] and assigned to treat with the Marsi, part of the Germanic invaders, he was able to negotiate their defection from the Cimbri and Teutones. The collection is particularly strong in the subject areas of education, psychology, American history, sociology, religion, and science and technology. Fimbria then committed suicide after a failed attempt on Sulla's life. 134/3 eagle's brood foretells the number of Marius' consulships. Sulla also wanted to reduce the risk that a future general might attempt to seize power, as he himself had done. It is intended to serve the needs of teachers and students in college survey courses in modern European history and American history, as well as in modern Western Civilization and World Cultures. He can hardly have been in any doubt. Primary sources in history are often created by people who witnessed, participated in, or were otherwise close to a particular event. He was to return the kingdoms of Bithynia and Cappadocia to Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes, respectively. Secondary sources are interpretations of history. Primary sources are contrasted with secondary sources, works that provide analysis, commentary, or criticism on the primary source. He then attacked the Samnites and routed one of their armies near Aesernia before capturing the new Italian capital at Bovianum Undecimanorum. [112] However, this and Sulla's delay in Asia are "not enough to absolve him of the charge of being more concerned with revenge on opponents in Italy than with Mithridates". He was, however, defeated. [40], In 102BC, the invaders returned and moved to force the Alps. The circumstances of his relative poverty as a young man left him removed from his patrician brethren, enabling him to consort with revelers and experience the baser side of human nature. Student Engagement: Primary source materials "help spark students . [2023] Welcome to The Internet History Sourcebooks Project, a collection of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts presented cleanly (without advertising or excessive layout) for educational use. No action was taken against the troops nor action taken to relieve Pompey Strabo of command. You can use the following terms to search HOLLIS for primary sources:. The personal motto was "no better friend, no worse enemy.". The Athenian politician Aristion had himself elected as strategos epi ton hoplon and established a tyranny over the city. Marius was elected consul and, through assignment by tribunician legislation, took over the campaign. Sulla, in southern Italy, operated largely defensively on Lucius Julius Caesar's flank while the consul conducted offensive campaigning. Modern sources have been somewhat less damning, as the Mithridatic campaigns later showed that no quick victory over Pontus was possible as long as Mithridates survived. Sulla was the first Roman magistrate to meet a Parthian ambassador. His rival, Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, described Sulla as having the cunning of a fox and the courage of a lion but that it was his cunning that was by far the most dangerous. And for his consular colleague, he attempted to transfer to him the command of Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo's army. Making of America. While besieging Pompeii, an Italian relief force came under Lucius Cluentius, which Sulla defeated and forced into flight towards Nola. [110], After peace was reached, Sulla advanced on Fimbria's forces, which deserted their upstart commander. [41] After the failure of negotiations, the Romans and Cimbri engaged in the Battle of the Raudian Field in which the Cimbri were routed and destroyed. This, along with the increase in the number of courts, further added to the power that was already held by the senators. In an harangue to the people, he said, with reference to these measures, that he had proscribed all he could think of, and as to those who now escaped his memory, he would proscribe them at some future time. [48] The Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, was executed upon his return to Parthia for allowing this humiliation; the Parthians, however, ratified the treaty reached, which established the Euphrates as a clear boundary between Parthia and Rome. With Mithridates' armies in Europe almost entirely destroyed, Archelaus and Sulla negotiated a set of relatively cordial peace terms which were then forwarded to Mithridates. Negotiations broke down after one of Scipio's lieutenants seized a town held by Sulla in violation of a ceasefire. Historical documents : how to read them. [70][71] They were designed to regulate Rome's finances, which were in a very sorry state after all the years of continual warfare. Archelaus then hid in the nearby marshes before escaping to Chalcis. "[133][134], At the end of 82 BC or the beginning of 81 BC,[135] the Senate appointed Sulla dictator legibus faciendis et reipublicae constituendae causa ("dictator for the making of laws and for the settling of the constitution"). Biographies of historical and famous people. Skilfully withdrawing to Clusium, he delegated to Norbanus command of troops to hold Metellus Pius. [98] He separately besieged Athens and Piraeus (the Long Walls had since been demolished). They are now largely lost, although fragments from them exist as quotations in later writers. [61] But after Cato's death in battle with the Marsi,[62] Sulla was prorogued pro consule and placed in supreme command of the southern theatre. The allies in central and southern Italy had fought side by side with Rome in several wars and had grown restive under Roman autocratic rule, wanting instead Roman citizenship and the privileges it conferred. [92] In the summer of 88, he reorganised the administration of the area before unsuccessfully besieging Rhodes. to the Birth of the Roman Empire (1969). Website. [63] All of these victories would have been won before the consular elections in October 89. Sulla raised important cavalry forces for Marius and was responsible for the . The historian Sallust fleshes out this character sketch of Sulla: He was well versed both in Greek and Roman literature, and had a truly remarkable mind. Sulla and Pompeius Rufus opposed the bill, which Sulpicius took as a betrayal; Sulpicius, without the support of the consuls, looked elsewhere for political allies. Some set their hearts on houses, some on landsThe whole period was one of debauched tastes and lawlessness. The first of the leges Corneliae concerned the interest rates, and stipulated that all debtors were to pay simple interest only, rather than the common compound interest that so easily bankrupted the debtors. [129], Sulla had his stepdaughter Aemilia (daughter of princeps senatus Marcus Aemilius Scaurus) married to Pompey, although she shortly died in childbirth. It was not until he was in his very late forties and almost past the age . [37], Starting in 104BC, Marius moved to reform the defeated Roman armies in southern Gaul. Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Sulla's military coup was enabled by Marius's military reforms, that bound the army's loyalty with the general rather than to the Roman Republic, and permanently destabilized the Roman power structure. [60], The next year, 89BC, Sulla served as legate under the consul Lucius Porcius Cato. His descendants among the Cornelii Sullae would hold four consulships during the imperial period: Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 5 BC, Faustus Cornelius Sulla in AD 31, Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix in AD 33, and Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix in 52 AD (he was the son of the consul of 31, and the husband of Claudia Antonia, daughter of the emperor Claudius). [65] This had been preceded by the lex Julia, passed by Lucius Julius Caesar in October 90BC, which had granted citizenship to those allies who remained loyal. After Sulla had recovered the government by force of arms, everybody became robbers and plunderers. Sulla also codified, and thus established definitively, the cursus honorum, which required an individual to reach a certain age and level of experience before running for any particular office. "[156], He was said to have a duality between being charming, easily approachable, and able to joke and cavort with the most simple of people, while also assuming a stern demeanor when he was leading armies and as dictator. Cornelius Lucius Sulla; Lucius Cornelius Cinna (elder) Marcus Licinius Crassus; Pompey the Great (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus) Julius Caesar; Marcus . He was awarded the Grass Crown for his bravery at the Battle of Nola. [58] At the start of the war, there were largely two theatres: a northern theatre from Picenum to the Fucine Lake and a southern theatre including Samnium. Pompey, the son of Pompey Strabo, raised a legion from his clients in Picenum and also joined Sulla; Sulla treated him with great respect and addressed him as imperator before dispatching him to raise more troops. The two armies then crossed the Po and attacked the Cimbri. [57], The same year, Bocchus paid for the erection of a statue depicting Sulla's capture of Jugurtha. Due to his meeting the minimum age requirement of thirty, he stood for the quaestorship in 108BC. The two primary sources for this paper are Sallust's [114], The general feeling in Italy, however, was decidedly anti-Sullan; many people feared Sulla's wrath and still held memories of his extremely unpopular occupation of Rome during his consulship. The Roman Republic and territories in 100 B.C. By the end of the war, the SSA had conscripted over 2.8 million American men. He attempted to mitigate this by passing laws to limit the actions of generals in their provinces, and although these laws remained in effect well into the imperial period, they did not prevent determined generals, such as Pompey and Julius Caesar, from using their armies for personal ambition against the Senate, a danger of which Sulla was intimately aware. He dismissed his lictores and walked unguarded in the Forum, offering to give account of his actions to any citizen. They are the most direct evidence of a time or event because they were created by people or things that were there at the time or event. Having exhausted available provisions near Athens, doing so was both necessary to ensure the survival of his army and also to relieve a brigade of six thousand men cut off in Thessaly. Shortly before Sulla's first consulship, the Romans fought the bloody Social War against their . As a result, "husbands were butchered in the arms of their wives, sons in the arms of their mothers. In art, literature, and cultural studies, primary sources . Later political leaders such as Julius Caesar would follow his precedent in attaining political power through force. He married again, with a woman called Aelia, of which nothing is known other than her name. [109] When Flaccus' consular army marched through Macedonia towards Thrace, his command was usurped by his legate Gaius Flavius Fimbria, who had Flaccus killed before chasing Mithridates with his army into Asia itself. Sulla marched to Praeneste and forced its siege to a close, with the younger Marius dead from suicide before its surrender. At the same time, the younger Marius sent word to assemble the Senate and purge it of suspected Sullan sympathisers: the urban praetor Lucius Junius Brutus Damasippus then had four prominent men killed at the ensuing meeting. There, Sulla attacked him in an indecisive battle. Gaius Sallustius Crispus (Sallust) was born Amiternum in the country of the Sabines in 86 BC. Guide to primary sources; Ask for help; CSU Pueblo University Library Email Me. In 109, Rome sent Quintus Caecilius Metellus to continue the war. Primary sources are first-hand evidence related to the time or event you are investigating.This includes accounts by participants or observers and a wide range of written, physical, audio or visual materials created at the time or later by someone with direct experience.. N.S. [117] Sulla attempted to open negotiations with Norbanus, who was at Capua, but Norbanus refused to treat and withdrew to Praeneste as Sulla advanced.

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